If discount rate reflects degree of selfishness, then the present results suggest that Japanese students are more selfish than American students, a conclusion contrary to the assumption of the collectivism/individualism dichotomy (Benedict, 1946; Markus & Kitayama, 1990).

Although there has been controversy around the notion of collectivism/individualism, few studies have directly tested this idea (Takano & Osaka, 1999). The present study does not support the assumption that Japanese are more collectivistic than Americans, although there was a cultural difference in the discount rate (i.e., degree of selfishness) between Japanese and Americans. The results from an international survey of adolescents’ lives and attitudes carried out under the auspices of the Japan Youth Research Institute (Sengoku, 2001) also are not consistent with the individualism/collectivism dichotomy. In one questionnaire,adolescents from four different countries (Japan, Korea, France, and the United States) were asked to respond to alternatives concerning attitudes on the value of life. The Japanese were more positive than Americans with regard to the statement, “My family’s happiness is more important than national or social advancement,” whereas the Japanese were less positive than Americans on the statement, “I want to contribute for the good of my own country.” The results of the present study, along with those from Sengoku using younger participants, suggest that post? World War II Japanese society has changed. This suggestion is consistent with the assumption of recent cross-cultural comparisons noting that culture is not static but dynamic across time (e.g., Matsumoto et al., 1997). A comparison between different generations within Japanese society would appear to be an important topic for future research.